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PROLIFERATION
OF SMALL ARMS AND ETHNIC CONFLICTS IN NIGERIA: IMPLICATION FOR NATIONAL
SECURITY
ABSTRACT
Readily
available and easy to use, small arms and light weapons have been the primary
or sole tool of violence in almost all conflict in every part of the globe. In
the hand of irregular troops operating with scant respect of international and
humanitarian law, these weapons have taken a heavy toll on human lives, with
women and children accounting for nearly 80 percent of the causalities. While
not by themselves causing the conflict in which they are used, the
proliferation of small arms and light weapons affect the intensity and duration
of violence and encourages militancy rather than a peaceful resolution of
unsettled differences. Perhaps most grievously, we see a vicious circle in
which insecurity leads to a higher demand for weapons which itself bread still
greater insecurity; and so on. The researcher is of the opinion that there is a
critical link between the proliferation of small arms and light weapons and the
upsurge in ethnic conflicts in Nigeria. Nigeria’s Fourth Republic has witnessed
the upsurge of ethnic and communal conflicts in which small arms are the
weapons of choice. The possible escalation of these conflicts fueled by the
availability of small arms poses an immense threat to national security. The
study will identify measures for controlling the proliferation of small arms and
light weapons, by adopting a multi-sectoral and comprehensive approach,
encompassing a whole gamut of measure, both operative and normative which must
be dealt with, both with the context of conflict prevention and conflict
resolution.
CHAPTER ONE
1.0
INTRODUCTION
The end of
the Cold War generated worldwide optimism for international peace and security.
A shift from superpower proxy conflicts in the Third World to socio-economic
development appeared a viable project. However, actual events in recent years
have disastrously shattered those expectations. In place of enhanced security,
virulent internal conflicts accompanied by unprecedented civilian casualties
and gross violations of human rights have emerged at an alarming rate. The
local roots and causes of the conflicts are numerous and diverse. However, in
nearly all of the conflicts, the diffusion of small arms, particularly from the
industrialized nations to the developing world has played a decisive role in
the escalation, intensification and resolution of these conflicts.In the last
decade, Liberia and Sierra Leone have been embroiled in protracted civil wars;
Guinea-Bissau experienced a brief internecine conflict in the late 1990s.
Casamance separatists have continued to battle the Senegalese as they have done
for two decades, Cote d’Ivoire suffers insurrection, Tuareg problem has
simmered in Mali and Niger, and Liberia and Guinea continue to accuse each
other of launching cross-border raids against their territories, in a conflict
also involving Sierra Leone rebels. The ongoing Daffur crises in Sudan is also
another clear case of diffusing small arms and light weapons.Thus, in contrast
to the conventional view inherited from the Cold War era, emerging violence
attest to the role of weapons as stimulus to conflict and a harbinger of
massive human rights violation and humanitarian crises. In many cases, the
availability of weapons has engendered violent conflicts. Thanks to advancing
globalisation and the new private order, the trafficking in light arms has made
them a weapon of choice. Illicit arms transfer is not a particular country’s
problem nor does the spread of deadly weapons stop at national borders. Guns
and small arms are no longer the preserves of militaries and police force but
have fallen into the hands of ordinary criminals, terrorists, ethnic militias
and death squads around the world.Globalisation is becoming an ever-influential
“architect” of the new international security agenda. Its impact on the
evolution of the relations among states is contradictory. On the one hand,
globalisation contributes to accelerated development of productive forces,
scientific and technological progress and ever more intensive communication
among states and people. On the other hand, it has facilitated the easy
transportation of illegal arms from one country to the other and has
transformed a domestic law and order problem to a national and international
security threat. Globalisation results in the long term irreversible
contraction in the domain of state authority. Coupled with liberalization,
states have in effect lost control of markets as reflected in the development
of parallel informal economics, the rise of grey and black markets and the
inability of the states to prevent the flow of illicit arms because of the
porous nature of most borders and the adoption of policies such as “free
movements” of people in a particular region. Evidence indicates that illegal
arms transfers are easier in periods of political transition that are normally
preceded by periods of violence. The state, then focuses it resources in areas
of reconstruction and development only, leaving gaps for the illicit transfer
of small arms by crime syndicates. Nigeria’s fourth Republic has witnessed the
upsurge of communal conflicts. Years of pent-up anger suppressed by prolonged
periods of military misrule found outlets as Nigeria joined the third
democratic wave. It is not arms that cause these conflicts, but the ease with
which these arms are available, leads to easy escalation of festering
conflicts.
1.1
STATEMENT OF GENERAL PROBLEM
In Africa,
the proliferation of small arms is increasing in proportion. The balances of
small arms traded are the remnants of conflicts in Mozambique and Angola, as
well as licensed weapons being stolen or lost. These small arms have played a
major role in exacerbating crimes and armed violence. Africa is also a major
transshipment point for the international trade, as well as a major producer of
local arms. This phenomenon threatens the consolidation of democracy and
security in the region, which is necessary for sustainable development.
1.2 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY It was hoped
that, at the end of the cold war, there will be a guaranteed world wide
optimism for international peace and security. A shift from super power proxy
conflicts in the third world to socio-economic development appeared a viable
project. It is disheartening to rediscover that, actual events in recent years
have disastrously shattered those expectations. In place of enhanced security,
virulent internal conflicts accompanied by unprecedented civilian casualties
and gross violation of human rights have emerged at an alarming rate. The local
roots and causes of conflicts are numerous and diverse.
However, in
nearly all these conflicts, the diffusion of small arms has played a decisive
role in the escalation, intensification and resolution of these conflicts.In
contrast to the conventional view inherited from the cold war era, emerging
violence attest to the role of weapons as stimulus to conflicts and a harbinger
of massive human rights violation and humanitarian crisis. in many cases, the
availability of weapons has engendered violent conflicts, which otherwise may
not have occurred. Thanks to advancing globalisation and the new private order,
the trafficking of small arms is cheap and robust. The accessibility of small
arms has been made an issue of choice. Illicit arms transfer is not a
particular country’s problem, nor does the spread of deadly weapons stop at
national borders. Guns and small arms are no longer the preserves of militias
and police force but have fallen into the hands of ordinary criminals,
terrorists, ethnic militias and death squads around the world. What is
noteworthy is that while leaders and nations, given the experience of two world
wars had concentrated on placing restrictions on the sale and transfer of big
and conventional weapons, small arms proliferation was tragically ignored. Even
major research centres like Stockholm International and Peace Research
Institute (SIPRI) of Stockholm have not undertaken any major study on the
spread of small arms. Most researchers over the past decades have focused on
the transfer of conventional weapons like tanks, heavy artillery, aircraft,
warships and missiles. 1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY In general terms,
the research seeks to understand the nature and dynamics of small arms
proliferation and ethnic conflicts in Nigeria. It also sought to explain in a
comprehensive manner, the link between small arms and light weapons
proliferation, and ethnic identity, and how the interaction with wider social,
economic and political context has consequences for conflicts and violence. In
specific terms, the objectives are as follows:
To examine
the nuances surrounding the concept of small arms and light weapons
proliferation and seek a better understanding of their meanings;
To examine
the interconnection and multiple linkages between small arms and ethnic or
community conflicts and violence.
To identify
and explain the role of small arms in the escalation of ethnic or community
violence.
To examine,
the role of the state, sub-region and international organizations and how their
mediations in ethnic violence and regulation is the spread of small arms in
Africa.
To examine
the nature of threats, caused by the proliferation of small arms, why are they
perceived as security threats.
To
contribute to the development of a policy framework, for the management of
small arms, in a plural and diverse ethnic nation with the particular reference
to ethnic conflict, as it threatens national and sub-regional security.
To analyse
the ways in which small arms proliferation are threats to national security.
1.4 RATIONAL OF THE STUDY Small
arms and light weapons are capable of aggravating ethnic conflict in Nigeria.
This study shall therefore provide a conceptual framework that will address the
problems of small arms and identify the gaps in the field of study. This will
also enhance assessment of the extent to which small arms can be identified as
security threat, by outlining the scholarly work that has been on
reconceptualising security, analysing the socio-economic consequences of these
phenomena as well as the repercussions of organised crime. Another rational of
the study is that it will serve as a starting point for further research by
other scholars who might be interested in this area of study. Furthermore, it
will not only add to the body of existing literature, but it will also explore
fresh options to contain the spread of small arms and light weapons in the
sub-region and Nigeria in particular.Similarly, this study will also serve as a
good source of information by Nigerian policy makers, constitutional lawyers,
students of criminology and sociology including politicians and professionals
in crises and conflict management. In addition, it could also be used to
identify loopholes and adopt strategies to prevent the proliferation of small
arms in the sub-region and Nigeria.
1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY The
scenario parroted in the foregoing suggests a massive resurgence of ethnic
conflict as a result of the proliferation of small arms, with due consequence
for not only state viability but also national security. Not unexpectedly,
ethnic violence in Nigeria as in many parts of the world has attracted the
attention of scholars of different ideological persuasions and academic
pedigree, but without the issue and linkage of small arms proliferation. These
include Marxist scholars, who for long ignored ethnicity and treated as
epi-phenomena of class and economic relations. Thus, in recognition of what has
been considered “a paradigm lost”, scholars of Marxian genre have undertaken
the expansion of the conceptual and theoretical warehouse of political economy.
Similar response has been witnessed from scholars, whose pioneering efforts
resulted in interpreting the salience of this identity in terms of the
prevalence of traditionalism and the absence of modernization. All this, points
to the academic significance of the study of small arms proliferation and
ethnic/community violence in Nigeria’s complex regional formation. Finally, the
study has policy significance. Without doubt, there exists a major lacuna in
the domain of public policy for the management of small arms proliferation and
ethnic pluralism apart from the expectation the democratic governance has a
saluting effect. However, for public policy to be effective, heuristic and
enduring, it can only be anchored on a clear understanding of the causes of
proliferation and the dimension of ethnic conflicts in Nigeria. The challenge
is to specify which policies and remedial actions both in the short and long
terms that can be put forward to address the threat to national security,
caused by the spread of small arms and ethnic conflicts.
1.6 HYPOTHESES To focus the study more sharply,
the following hypotheses have been formulated for testing:
The
proliferation of small arms and light weapons engenders violent ethnic
conflicts.
Small arms
and light weapons have escalated the intensity of inter-ethnic conflicts.
There is a
relationship between the proliferation of small arms and light weapons and
ethnic conflicts.
The
proliferation of small arms leads to increase in ethnic conflicts.
The widespread
availability of small arms leads to the prolongation of ethnic conflicts.
1.7 EXPECTED FINDINGS The research is
intended to highlight, how small arms and light weapons have exacerbated ethnic
conflict in Nigeria. It will also provide a framework of controlling regimes,
such as national policy, regional initiatives and internal processes.
In the main,
policy options will be provided by the study, to government sub-regional bodies
and international organisations, since the problems of small arms and light
weapons, are not limited to any particular state. The adoption of the multiple options that
will be provided by this study will reduce and contain ethnic conflicts in
which small arms and light weapons are the weapons of choice.
1.8 LIMITATIONS: The most important
limitation on this study was time and finance. The inability of the researcher
to travel to various countries in the sub-region and interview major actors in
the small arms and light weapons debate might have limited the inputs of some
major actors. There was also the possibility that some of the publications
consulted had inhered bias. However, an attempt was made to reduce the effect
of this bias on the outcome of this study by consulting a wide spectrum of materials
on the research project; and also authentication of most of the materials used
was equally made. Inspite of all these limitations, a thorough study was
undertaken, to enable future researchers to improve on.
1.9 DEFINATION OF TERMS
Arms Control
– Reduction in the quest of superiority in small arms/light weapons amongst
ethnics group
Area Boys –
Freelance that operates mostly around the commercial areas of Lagos Island.
They served as foot soldiers for the wider causes of ethnic assertiveness.
Buyer’s
Markets – A place used by arms buyers to know the changes that have taken place
in the international small arms market.
Cold War –
An ideological war that was fought with propaganda and diplomacy between the
capitalist western European countries led by America and Britain and the
Communist countries led by Soviet-Union.
Combatant –
Locally trained militias, fighting for their ethnic cause.
vi
Crisis and Conflict Management – Strategies for controlling crisis and
conflicts before the escalate into violence in which small arms and light
weapons are used.
Channels –
Arms selling/buyer routes that operate with government support even though in
violation of official government policy. Most often, they are linked to such
agencies like government intelligence agencies or private companies.
Disarmament
– The act of reducing the size of small arms/light weapons among ethnic
combatants.
Excessive
weapons – Small arms/light weapons considered being beyond acceptable number.
Although, it is also a relative term only in context of specific regions,
sub-regions or state.
Ethnic
Conflict – Disagreement or clash between two cultures or ethnic groups.
Gray –
Market Channels - Legal markets that carries out legal sales of small
arms/light weapons through military assistance programs in which combat small
arms and light weapons are disseminated through.
Gray –
Market Transfer – Markets that entails the delivery of weapons from government
stockpile to political entities and ethnic militias associated with military
clan or party.
Illegal
Bunkering – Theft of crude oil.
Light
Weapons – All conventional munitions that can be carried by an individual
combatant or by light vehicles.
Munitions –
Military Weapons, ammunitions, and equipment.
National
Security Treat – Increase in crime wave, crisis and violent conflicts, which
endanger people’s lives and the safety of properties of a nation.
National
Insecurity – State of political instability in which the safety of lives is no
longer guaranteed.
Odudua
People Congress (OPC). An underground movement, trained in preparation for
armed resistance, against the General Sani Abacha’s regime.
Small arms –
A category of light weapons which include automatic weapons, up to, and
including 20mm submachine guns, riffles, carbines, handguns and hand placed
landmines.
Stockpiles –
Accumulation of large quantities of small arms/light weapons by ethnic
combatants
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